 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
A literary work created based on
either factual information or not is to be appreciated. In appreciating the
literary work- try to get the truth that is reflected in that literary work is
one of the ways for us to appreciate or understand the literary work. In other
word, literary man writes his literary work can be based on factual information
or only what he imagines that he expresses in his literary work.
In literary work certainly is often
seen event or case that is depicted in that literary work. Because of the skill
and ability of the writer’s imagination that event is as if factually really
happens. Moreover, if it is supported by the setting and lifelikeness of the
characters and it is affiliated by historical setting and event, it will be
more reliable to the readers as if the readers find something or event as they
find in reality. Then, the event that is depicted in the literary work is felt
as not story but as the thing or event that factually really happens in
reality. It is because of the skill of the writer.
A literary work is sometimes
coincidentally written based on factual information, event or other cases that
really happen as Nurgiyantoro (2002: 100) says that a literary work can be
written based on factual information. In other word, the event or issue that is
highlighted in literary work really exists in reality before that literary work
produced. Example gratia, a poem, as the simplest genre of literature, besides
it contains issue the value of life, social, psychology, it also contains the
historical value. Hence the reader often finds the historical fact that is
related to the age when the poet lived- the poet was skillful of that history.
The poem that contains historical fact does not discuss about history but it is
merely a way to place or understand and appreciate the poem itself. Simply this
poem can be analyzed by using historical approach as Ainudin (2002: 171) says
in his book that historical approach does not discuss about historical aspect
outright because the final purpose of historical approach is to understand or
appreciate the poem itself. In other word, this approach is basically the way
to appreciate literary work.
One of the literary works that
contains historical fact is The Defence of Lucknow. This poem is
classified as narrative poem since this poem tell us about the event- the
battle of British versus Sepoys. Narrative poem is a poem that emphasizes on
event/ action or plot (Gillespie et. al, 1994:990). In addition this poem was
published in April 1879. This poem was written by Alfred Tennyson-the great
poet of Victorian Age. Tennyson lived and produced literary works in 19th
century. In the beginning of the era there was unlimited progress. The sense of
self satisfaction or complacency resulted from immense stride that England had
taken in industrial revolution and scientific field. The nation was growing richer
and richer every day. The British Empire was already in reality- the colonizing
mission of English was already bringing up rich dividends, and the country that
became the victim of British colonizing mission was India (Tilak, 1999:1).
The British expansion to India began when
the English India Company extended its control over India’s territory
throughout 18th -19th century. The agreement made by
Indian princes provided for the place of British troops within the state. To
pay the troops the British were often given income collection right in certain
part of the state. This gave them indirect control over these areas. And in
1773 the British parliament passed from the regulating act. The first of the
series was that gave British governor greater control over the English East
India company. From this aroused the battle of British versus Sepoys.
Actually the causes of the battle of British
versus Sepoys had diverse causes: economy, religion, culture, and military.
From this causes the most influential toward Sepoys was military since Sepoys
were native Indian army who served the armies of the British East India Company
who know that British would convert them into Christianity. It was rumored that
the British had started the issue new gunpowder cartridge that had cow and pig
fat on them which insulted both Hindu and Moslem in India. To load the old
musket and new rifle, soldier had to bite the cartridge open and pour the gunpowder,
it contained into the rifle’s muzzle. Then stuff the cartridge case, which was
typically paper coated which some kind of grease before loading it.
Another case in military that Sepoys
were given low payment after British troops conquered Awadh and Punjab. The
soldiers also no longer received extra pay (batta) for service. Finally
an officer of Evangelical persuasion in the company’s army (such as Herbert
Edwards and Colonel S.G Whaler) had taken to preach the Sepoys in the hope of
converting them into Christianity. In conclusion, from religious and military
had big influences each other since these causes happened in the Sepoys.
A rumored spread that the cartridge that
were standard with this rifle were greased with lard (pork fat) which
was regarded as unclean by Muslim, or tallow (beef fat) which was
regarded sacred to Hindu. A Hindu who ate cow’s meat or every thing related to
it, would loose their caste with dreadful consequence both in the present life
and the next life.
Sepoys Mutiny (1857) was widespread
but unsuccessful rebellion. It begun in Meerut, and then spread to Delhi, Cownpore, and
Lucknow, and the place that became a war of cry for British was Cownpore since
the killing of women and children of the British happened in this place.
From the depiction above I am
interested to highlight the issue above about Sepoy Mutiny that is actually the
battle of British versus Sepoys. The most interesting is in which the British
made new gunpowder cartridges that had cow and pig fat on them that insulted
both Hindu and Muslim and when the British intended to convert them to Christianity
(http://en.wikipedia.org)
1.2 Formulation of the Problem
Considering about the background of
the study that depict the case about the battle of British versus Sepoys in
which it is very interesting topic, so that I would like to search,
How is the battle of British versus
Sepoys explored in Alfred Tennyson’s The Defence of Lucknow?
1.3
Objective of the Study
The objective of the study and the
formulation of the problem must be in line. In other word, the objective of the
study is the answer of the problem formulation. Therefore, this analysis
intends to elaborate how the battle of British versus Sepoys is explored in
Alfred Tennyson’s The Defence of Lucknow.
1.4 Uses of the Study
The uses of the study is divided into
two; practical use and theoretical use.
1.4.1
Practical Use
This analysis hopefully can enrich and
broaden the researcher’s and the readers’ knowledge about history especially
about the battle of British versus Sepoys.
1.4.2
Theoretical Use
This analysis intends to provide an issue
in literary work especially poem analyzed from event/ action or plot.
1.5
Scope of the Study
To dig up the issue that is depicted
in this poem, I will analyze event/ action or plot of the poem to describe the
issue conveyed in this poem. In this analysis the historical fact is really
needed to analyze the poem.
 CHAPTER TWO
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1
The Brief History of British Expansion to India
The English East India Company
continued its control over India’s territory throughout 18th -19th
century. The agreement made with Indian princes provided the place of British
troops in this state. In paying the troops the British were often given income
collecting right in certain part of the state. It gave them indirect control
over these areas.
The British made military means and
got the profit from it. In the late 1700s they were drawn in the conflict when
the Sultan of Hyderaabaad asked for the British assistance against his rival.
The Marathas and Tipu Sahid, the Sultan of Mysore. In 1799 the British attacked
Seringapatam, Tipus’ Capital and defeated the troops. Tipus was killed in
defending his city. The British annexed much of Mysore outright. They control
the reminder through new sultan they installed. After a series of battle
(1775-1782, 1803-1805, 1817-1818) with the Marathas the British also succeeded
in bringing Marathas land under their control.
In 1773 the British parliament passed
from regulating act, the first of a series act that gave British governor
greater control over the English India Company. Under the Regulating act, the
company was still permitted to continue handling all trading matter and to have
its own troops, but its activities were supervised by parliament. The act also
established the post of the governor- general of India and made the holder of
the office directly to the British government Warren Hasting became the first
governor –general of India in 1774.
The British continued to make major
change in administration of their working square. The three presidencies
(administrative districts)-Bengal, Bombay, and Madras used different system of
fixing responsibility for payment of the taxes. In Bengal, only local landed
gentry had responsibility to pay the fixed amount of taxes for the ownership of
large estates. Under the agreement the British did not share in gain of any
potential improvement to agriculture productivity. By contrast in Madras and
Bombay, person cultivator paid annual taxes directly to the government. The tax
rate could be adjusted in different payment. So in this case the British could
get the benefit from agriculture field.
A civil service system was developed that
admitted British officers were to trained in the college and paid them
handsomely to reduce corruption. Meanwhile, the development of textile industry
in Britain forced a transformation of India’s company. India had to produce raw
cotton for export and buy manufactured goods –including cloths from England,
while the cottage industries that produced textile in India were ruined because
the cloths from England were sold cheaper than Indian products.
At the same time British attitude
toward Indian culture changed until about 1800 the English East India Company
trader adapted themselves to the country, wearing Indian dress, learning
Sanskrit, and sometimes taking Indian mistresses. A British rule strengthened,
and influential Evangelical Christian movement emerged in the early 19th
century. Indian custom were judged more harshly. Missionaries who had been
hidden or keep out by the company for fear they would upset Indian and thus
disrupted or disturbed commerce. Law was passed to abolish Indian custom such
as suttee (the immolation of a widow on her husband funeral pyre).
In 18th century company officer
such as William Jones, a scholar of Sanskrit who discovered the relationship of
indo European language, who felt Indian thought and literature were no value,
replaced them by British subject. In 1835 English was enforced as language of
the government.
Under the relationship of governor-general
James Andrew Brown Ramsay, 10th earl of Dalhousie, in 1849 continued
to expand after two wars with Sikh the Sikh state of Punjab. Dalhousie also
annexed Satara, Jaipur, Sambalpur, Jhansi, and Naghpur. When Dalhousie’s tenure
(the term of his position) was also remarked various improvements and reforms:
the construction of the rail road, bridge, road, and irrigation system and the
establishment of telegraph. These innovation and reforms, however, aroused
enthusiasm among Indian people; many of them regarded the modernization of
their country (http://www.english.emory)
2.2
The Battle of British versus Sepoy
The battle of British versus Sepoy was
also called as Sepoy Mutiny or Sepoy Rebellion. The battle actually had diverse
causes- economy, religion, military, and culture. The Sepoy of Bengal Armies
had their own claims against the company, mainly caused by ethnic gab between
officer and their Indian troops (sepoys). It was also rumored that the British
had started to issue new gunpowder cartridges that had cow and pig fat on them,
which insulted both Hindu and Muslim.
Some Indian came to believe that the
British intended to convert them to Christianity. Many of English East India
Company’s officers tried to convert their Sepoys. This was strongly encouraged
by company and also the doctrine of lapse, part of British policy expansion- if
feudal ruler did not leave a male heir (inheritance) outright i.e. their own
child not an adopted one, the land became the property of the British East
India Company.
The Indian were unhappy with heavy
handed rule of the company that had enlarged expansion and westernization. This
included the abusing of many customs such as suttee (suicidal widow burning). From
the economy that British took the taxation from Bombay, Bengal, and Madras by
using different system that made them getting much benefit from it without any
sharing to the agriculture productivity. From the development of industry in
Britain forced a transformation of India’s economy- India had to produce raw
cotton for export and buy manufactured goods while the cottage industries that
made cotton in India were ruined.
Fire, possible the result of arson,
broke out near Calcutta on January 24th 1857. On February, 26th
1857 Sepoys in Bengal-the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) came to
know about the new cartridge and refused to use them. On May, 1857 troopers/
Sepoys at Meerut refused to use their cartridge. They were imprisoned,
sentenced ten years of hard labor.
The Sepoys in the company knew that it
was likely that they would also be asked to use the new cartridge and they too
would have to refuse in order to save their caste, religion and social status.
When Native Bengal Army were together (assembled) in Meerut on May 10th
they broke rank and turned on their commanding officers. Then they liberated
regiment that were sentenced by the British and attacked the European and
killed all the Europeans they could find, including women and children and
burned their house.
There were however some contemporary
British accounts that suggested some Sepoys guarded their officer to safety and
then joint to their mutinous movement. Before they left, the Sepoys of that
regiment had accompanied two ladies with their children to safe place, and then
they rejoined their mutinous friend. Some officer and their families escaped to
Rampur. Despite this at the time wild rumors circulated about the complete
massacre (big killing) of all European and native Christian at Meerut the first
of many such stories which led British Forces to extremely violent revenged
against innocent civilians.
In Delhi British were slow to strike
back, they proceeded slowly toward Delhi and fought, killed and hang numerous
Indian along this area. In this city also a large number of citizens (European
and India’s “collaborators”) had been killed by the rebel Sepoys. The Sepoys
were set up in the main mosque in the city and neighborhood within the range of
Sepoy was bombarded. These included the name of Muslim nobility from all over
India, and contained innumerable culture artistic literary and monetary riches.
An example would be the lost of the work of Murza Asadsullah Khan Ghalib,
thought of as the greatest Indian poet of that era.
In Cownpore that became a war of cry
for British because the killing of more women and children happened in this
area than in Meerut and fired Bibi-Ghar (the house of the ladies) in Cownpore.
The killing of the women and children proved to be a mistake by British. When
the British retook Cownpore later the soldiers took their Sepoys prisoners to
the Bibir-Garh and forced them to lick (suck in) the bloodstains from the wall
and the floor. Then they hanged or blew from cannon the Sepoys prisoners.
This rebellion also erupted in Awadh
very soon after the event in Meerut. The British commander of Lucknow, Henry
Lawrence had enough to fortify his position inside the residency compound
(defending wall). British forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal
Sepoys. The rebels were unsuccessful; they began a musket fire into the
compound. Lawrence, one of the first casualties, the rebel tries to break the
wall explosively via underground tunnel. After 90 days of siege number of
British was reduced to 300. This action was known as the siege of Lucknow. On
the September 25 the British could defeated the mutineers (http://en.wikipedia.org)
2.3
Sepoys
Sepoys were native Indian soldiers
(also called sowar). They served in the armies of the English East India
Company under British officers trained in the English East India Company’s
college at Addiscombe, the company own military school. The presidencies of
Bombay, Bengal, and Madras maintained their own Sepoys each with its own
commander. They had more troops than the official armies of the British East
India Company. In 1857 there were 257,000 Indian troops.
In 1851- 2 Sepoys were required to
serve overseas during a war in Burma. Hindu tradition stated that those who
travel black water (kala pani) would loose their caste and be outside
from the Hindu community. The Sepoys were thus very displeased with their
deployment (distribute army through the sea) in this case through Kala Pani
to Burma. The Sepoys gradually became dissatisfied with various aspects of army
life. Their payment was relatively low and after British troops conquered Awadh
and Punjab the soldier no longer received extra payment (batta) for
service there, because they were considered as “foreign mission”. Finally,
officers of Evangelical persuasion in the company’s army (such as Herbert
Edwards and Colonel S.G Wheeler) had taken to preach their Sepoys in the hope
of converting them to Christianity. In 1857, the Bengal Sepoys contained 10
regiments of Indian cavalry (soldier fighting on horse back) and 74 of infantry
(soldier who fight on foot). All the cavalry and 45 of the infantry were
mutineers and the rest of the infantry units which did not mutiny had to be
disbanded or broken up. Once the first mutineers took place, it was clear to
most British commander that the grievances or claim which led to it were felt
throughout the Bengal army and no Indian units could be trusted
(http://en.wikipedia.org)
2.4 Historical Approach
Since the analysis intends to
elaborate the battle of British versus Sepoys the historical approach is
employed to analyze the literary work. The essence of literary work is
imagination, but the imagination that has social and historical context (Ratna,
2004:65). According to Ainudin (2003:46) historical approach is an approach
that emphasizes on the understanding the age of creating literary work and also
about the development of creating literary work but in this case I only focus
on the age of creating literary work. Tennyson who created this poem lived in
Victorian Age, the age when England was growing richer and richer and British Empire
was already a reality- the colonizing of the British that made them richer and richer.
The victim of British colonization was India in which British began when the
English East India Company continued to extend its control over India.
Ainudin further explains that the
historical approach is one of the approaches in appreciating literary work,
does not merely discuss about the historical aspect because the final purpose
of historical approach is to understand and appreciate the literary work
itself. It can be said that the historical approach is an approach or a way to
appreciate the literary work.
This definition also supported by the
definition given by Burris, he states that historical approach sees work as the
reflection of the author’s life and time (http://www.literaturedusics.com). From
this definition it can be stated that the age of the author’s life is under the
historical approach. While the author’s life is one of the scope of historical
approach specifically biographical approach that really needs the information
of the biographical sketch of the writer.
At the same point the definition about
historical approach is stated by Meyer. He states that historical approach is a
way of approaching the relation of literature and history, however, is to use
history as means of understanding of literary work more clearly (1990:1785). It
means that historical approach is one of the ways of appreciating literary
work. Borrowing the statement of Harlinto in Teknostatik (2002:67) “history makes literature possible
and literature makes history comprehensible”, from this statement I can
conclude that literary work is possible to be analyzed by using historical approach
and by reading the literary work that contains historical fact we can comprehend
more that history.
In conclusion, since my analysis is
about the battle of British versus Sepoys in which this event happened in the
age of the poet in Victorian Age, the historical is employed. In this age
British was growing richer and richer, and one of the factors was actually
British colonized India. In colonizing India British faced Sepoys was one of
the battles that British fought.
2.5 Plot Narrative Poem
The poem The Defence of Lucknow
is categorized as narrative poem, because of it the analysis will focus on the
event or plot as the emphasis of narrative poem. Narrative is poem emphasizing
on the plot or event, as Klarer (2004) says in his book that narrative poem
tells a story with clearly developed structure of plot. This theory also
supported by theory given by Gillespie ET all (1994: 990), they state that
narrative poem is a poem that emphasizes on event or action. Because of it, it
is really needed the theory of event/ action or plot in the narrative poem.
Lonstance P states that that a good
narrative poem is same as a good piece of fiction. From his statement, it can
be inferred that the elements of narrative poem are same as the elements of
piece of fiction.
The theory of plot given by Lonstance
P, he states that the theory of plot consists of beginning, middle and ending.
He further explains that if the action in the plot is bigger, the poem will be
longer. In other word, the length of the poem is based on the length of the
event. (http://perioheryarts.blogspots.com)
From the theory above, it is clear
that there is plot in the narrative poem. Plot in the narrative poem refers to
sequence of accident that can be found in the poem which eventually leads the readers’
better understanding what actually the poet wants to say. The plot of the poem
consists of beginning, middle, and ending. If the action in the poem is bigger,
the poem will be longer.
In conclusion, this analysis will
focus in the theory of plot in the narrative poem; event or plot in the
narrative poem consists of beginning or exposition, middle, and ending or
resolution.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
Method is the way how we do the
research; in other word method is “vehicle” to do the research. According to Arikunto (2002: 136) method is
the way which is used to collect and analyze the data. It is clear that
method is very important in doing the research.
The method that I use is descriptive
qualitative method. By descriptive method I can explain the data by describing
them because descriptive method does not limit only on the data collecting
method but involves analysis and interpretation about the meaning of the data
(Surakhmad, 1998: 139). By qualitative method I can know that this analysis of
the data that is formed by words (Boglan and Taylor in Moleong, 1999:3). The
definition about qualitative also supported by the definition given by Walcoot
in Alwasilah (2002: 28) he states that the analysis and the interpretation data
in the form of narrative. I use library research in collecting the data because
I get the data from many documents.
3.2 Data and Data Source
3.2.1.
Data
Data are something that we analyze. The
data of this research consist of primary data and secondary data. Primary data of
this research are the stanza and lines of the poem. Meanwhile the secondary are
article about the battle of British versus sepoys and essay about the poem.
3.2.2.
Data Source
Data source of this research consists
of primary data source and secondary data source. The primary data source of this
research is the poem The Defence of Lucknow and the secondary data
source of this research is journal on line and the book that have correlation
to the analysis.
3.3
Data Collecting Techniques
In collecting the data I use some
steps as follow:
1. Reading the poem The Defence of Lucknow
carefully and repeatedly while noting the difficult words to get the meaning of
the difficult words in the hope understanding the poem and then taking primary
data that are considered crucial and relevant to the problem formulated.
2. Reading the secondary data source from
internet and book that have correlation to the analysis and taking secondary data
that can support primary data such as article and essay.
3. Arranging the entire data and gather into the
right pattern as needed in
this research.
3.4 Data Analyzing
Techniques
In
processing the data of this research, there are some steps as follow:
1.
Selecting the primary data based on the importance; select the necessary ones
and excludes the unnecessary ones.
2. Interpreting the primary data to get more
understanding what is actually the meaning of the data and relates to the
secondary data
3. Analyzing the data based on the theory
provided.
4. Evaluating all the things related to the
analysis and taking conclusion based on the analysis.
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS
The Defence of Lucknow is a narrative poem that consists of seven
stanzas. This poem tells us about the battle of British versus sepoys in which
this battle happened in India. In addition this poem is a poem by “handful” of
British during Indian Mutiny, 1857. Tennyson investigated the fact of the
terrible war. This poem was published in 1857 (Tilak,1999: 253). Since this
poem is a narrative poem the analysis will focuses on the action /event or plot
as the emphasis of narrative poem.
Plot in the narrative poem is divided
into three part, beginning, and middle and ending (http://perioheryarts.blogspot.com),
therefore the theory of plot is employed. Since the historical approach is
applied also, the historical fact is really needed in this analysis. The
analysis is as follow,
4.1
Beginning
In the beginning of this poem, the
poet leads the readers what actually he wants to convey. Through the speaker of
this poem he tries to lead his readers that he wants to tell them about war.
Simply, the speaker of this poem speaks to others to float the flag as the
indication to go to war. In other word, the poet directly leads the readers
that he wants to tell them about war. It is stated as follow,
Banner of England, not for season, O
banner of England, hast thou
Floated in conquering battle or flap
to the battle cry
Never with mightier glory than we had
rear’d thee on high
Flying at top the roof in the ghastly
siege of Lucknow
Shot thro’ the staff or the halyard,
but ever we raise thee anew
And ever upon the topmost roof our
banner of England blew
(Stanza 1)
From these lines, it is
clears that the poet wants to leads the readers toward war. It is stated from
“Banner of England, not for season”. It seems that there is a person who says
to other persons to float the English flag. The word “England” indicates that
the person is English person who speaks to others English men. The poet
continues with “not for season”, it indicates that the float of the English
flag is not for usual seasons, e.g. to appreciate the independence days, but it
refers to war. “Banner of Britain” is the repetition of “Banner of England”.
This repetition indicates that the speaker wants to make the others become
spirit to conquer the war.
The second line, the poet
directly states that he wants to lead the readers to the battle that is the
battle that conquer their enemies or the battle that make their enemy crying. Actually
from these two lines, it is clear that he leads his readers to the war or
battle. The next line of this poem, Tennyson gives the readers what actually
the war is.
From the third line of
this poem, it is stated that there is no mightier glory or the top of the glory
except the independence to float the flag as the sign of victory or the sign of
the independent country. In other words, floating flag is the mightier glory
than others.
The fourth line of this
poem, this line really leads the readers what actually the poet wants to say
what actually the war is. “The ghastly siege of Lucknow” indicates that this
war is only happened when the British was in India in which the British faced
sepoys. The siege of Lucknow is one of the series of the event of the battle of
British versus sepoys. In addition, actually from the title The Defence of
Lucknow , the poet wants to lead the readers to the battle of British
versus sepoys that happened in India since Lucknow is the British compound in
India and the sepoys attacked this area, and the accident in this area called
as the siege of Lucknow (http://en.wikipedia.org).
The fifth line of this
poem indicates that they float the flag more than once, from the clause “but
ever we raised thee anew”, it indicates that British ever raised the flag and
they float the flag again. It means that they ever floated the fag as the
indication of the war before this war happened. Related to the British
expansion to India, actually they ever suppressed a series of battle with
Marathas (1775-1782, 1803-1805, and 1817-1818). The British succeeded in
Bringing Marathas’ land under their control (http://www.english.emory).
It can be concluded that British ever suppressed the war and now they face the
war in which they face sepoys in this war. It is related to the last line of
the first stanza that they ever won the war. The last line indicates that they
should win the war again. In other word the speaker of this poem gives the
spirit to go to the war.
From the explanation
above, it can be concluded that in the beginning of this poem, the poet leads
the readers to the war and he continues to the specific war that is the war of
British versus sepoys happened in India in 1857. The poet leads the readers to
the war in the first stanza as the beginning of the plot.
4.2. Middle
In the middle of this poem
the poet tells his readers what kind of events that happens in the battle. The
poet begins to tell the events of the poem from the second stanza. The events
that are depicted in this poem are as follow,
4.2.1 Massacre (the big killing)
The massacre or the big
killing as happened in the real war also reflected in this poem. The massacre
happens because of the frail of the British’s defense.
The defense of British is frail;
therefore, the sepoys could kill the British men or event the British
commander, Henry Laurence. It is depicted as follow,
Frail were the work
that defended the hold that we held with our lives-
Women and children
among us, god helps them, our children and wife!
Hold it we might-and
for fifteen days or twenty at most
Never surrender, I
charge you, but every man die at his post
Voice of the death whom we love, our
Laurence the best of the brave
Cold were his brows when we kiss’d
him-we laid him that night in his grave
‘Every man die at his post!’ and there
hail’d on our houses and halls
Death from their riffle-bullets, and
death from their cannon-balls,
Death in our innermost chamber, and
death at our slight barricade,
Death while we stood with the musket,
death while we stoopt to the spade
Death to the dying and wound to the
wounded, for often there fell
Striking the hospital wall, crashing
thro’ it, their shot and their shell
So that the brute bullet broke thro’
the brain that could think for the rest;
Bullet would sing by our head and, and
bullet would rain at our feet
Death of the glimpse of a finger from
over the breath of the street
Death from the heights of the mosque
and the palace, and death in the ground!
(Stanza 2 line 1-18)
In the second stanza the
poet states that the British is frail in defending their hold, because of it,
the frail of the British, the sepoys could kill the British men or even the
British’s Commander, Henry Lawrence. This first line of second stanza implicitly
states that the sepoys have attacked the British. Tennyson gives directly that
the defense of the British were frail. It is described from the inversion “that
the works that defended the hold that we held our lives were frail”. Frail can
be defined as the very weak defense. “Frail were the works that defended the
hold that we held with our lives” according to Tilak (1999: 254) can be defined
as in the battle the bond between life and death becomes very delicate and
easily cut. The death comes easily because the very weak defense of the British.
From the interpretation given by Tilak, it is clear that the death come easily,
it means that the massacre happens in this poem also.
The next line the frail of
the defense is in protecting their lives –women and children although God help
them but the wives and the children still need protection by the British from
attacking of enemy. This lines is the continuant of the first line that
actually British is frail in defending and protecting their wives and children.
The third line of the
second stanza, British expect that actually they could only suppress for
fifteen or twenty days at most. From the essay written by Tilak (1999: 254),
stated that the British were frightened to maintain their ground for more than
fifteen to twenty days. It is such an expectation of British to suppress the
war in the short time.
In the massacre the sepoys
could kill many English men or even they could kill the British commander,
Henry Laurence. It is stated in the fifth line of the second stanza. The
speaker states that the one that British love who died in the battle is Henry
Laurence, the British commander of Lucknow.
In addition he was injured by eight inch shell with burst in the
residency. He suffered from his injury on 4th July 1857(Tilak,
1999:255) and finally he was laid or buried by the British on that night after
his death.
The next line, from the
clause “there hail’d in our houses and hall” that reflects the battle, hail’d
is the shower of the bullet to the British house and halls by sepoys that makes
some of the British die at his certain position. Related to the battle, when
Native Bengal Army was together (assembled) in Meerut, they broke rank and
turned on their commanding officer. Then they liberated two regiments that were
sentenced by British and attacked the European and killed all the European they
could find including women and children and burnt their houses after they
showered the halls (http://en.wikipedia.org). This
accident is called as the big massacre. The massacre is the big killing that is
done by sepoys.
The next lines, starting
from the eighth lines really inform us that the death of the British men is
because of the shower of the rifle bullets and cannon ball that were shot by
the sepoys. The attacking of the sepoys was until the innermost chamber (room)
of the British house and this death is because the slight barricade of the
British-the frail of the British defense.
From this expression it is
really clear that the massacre happens in this poem as the reflection of the
war. In addition the word “death “in the second stanza is repeated many times.
The repetition of the word “death” suggests that the numbers of the British
people who are dead are massive. So it can be concluded that the massacre that
happens in the battle also reflected in the poem.
The massacre happens
because the sepoys attack the British’s residency many times from all over the
sides that make the British die. In addition, the death of the British is also
supported by the frail of the British’s defense. The defense of the British is
frail because the sepoys siege from all over the wide street. The glimpse of
the finger can be defined as the frail of the defense of the British because
the glimpse of the finger is one of the slightest movements that we can do. It
means that the sepoys are really easy to kill since the frail of the defense of
the British.
In conclusion, the
massacre that happens in the real war also happens in this poem. It is
described in the second stanza after the beginning. In addition the
descriptions in the poem really help us to understand the big massacre in the
real war.
4.2.2 The Attacking of the Sepoys via
Underground Tunnel
In attacking the British
compound, the sepoys broke the wall explosively via underground tunnel
(http://en.wikipedia.org). This action, the attacking of the sepoys via
underground tunnel is reflected in this poem also. The attacking of the sepoys
via underground tunnel is reflected as follow,
Mine? Yes, a mine! Countermine! Down,
down! And creep thro’ the hole!
Keep the revolver in hand! You can
hear him-the murderous mole
Quite, ah! Quite-wait till the point
of the pickaxe be thro’!
Click with the pick, coming nearer and
nearer again that before
Now let it speak, and you fire and the
dark pioneer is no more
And ever upon the topmost roof our
banner of England blew
(Stanza 2 line 19-24)
Mine can be defined as the
receptacle filled with explosive placed in the ground (Tilak, 1999: 255). It
means that the attacking is also through the underground. “Down, down! Creep
thro’ the hole” indicates that actually the attacking of the sepoys through the
underground through creeping to the hole. The next expression is actually the
resistance of the British toward the sepoys in the underground. It seems that
there is a speaker who commends others to keep the revolver in their hand,
after they know there is a murderous mole they could shoot them. The murderous
mole and the dark pioneer here, refers to the sepoys. The last line of the
second stanza is the repetition of the last line of the first stanza. It
indicates that that the speaker tries to give spirit to others since they could
suppress the war before this war, it means that they must be able to suppress
this war also. In addition actually this repetition exists in every stanza, it
indicates that they expect to win the war, and actually finally they could win
this war. In addition the attacking of
the sepoys via underground is also reflected as follow,
Ay, but the foe spring this mine may
times, and it chanced on a day
Soon as the blast of that underground
thunderclap echo’d away
Dark thro’ the smoke and the sulphur
likes so many fiends in the hell
(Stanza 3 line 3)
These lines reflect that
the attacking of the sepoy is via underground. The foe-the sepoys as the
British’s enemy spring their mine many times. It happened on a day soon. The blast
of the mine many times is like the thunderclap that comes out from underground.
The sound of the explosion is like the underground thunderclap. It results the
dark in the smoke and the sulphur like the fiend in the hell. From this
hyperbola, simile, the visual imagery, it help us to know the description of
the explosion, as we see the explosion of the bomb that result the dark smoke.
But this dark smoke of this is extreme dark since the poet describes this by
comparing to the fiends in the hell. In other word the explosion result very
extremely dark smoke.
In short, the attacking of
the sepoys via underground is reflected clearly in this poem by giving the
description of the sound of the explosion and the smoke as the result of the
explosion. This event is reflected also in these lines.
Roar upon roar in a
moment two mines by enemy sprung
Clove into perilous
chasms our wall and our poor palisades
(Stanza 4 line 9-10)
The roar of explosive two
mines that are placed by the sepoys in ground that cleave the wall and
palisades become perilous chasms. When the sepoys assault the Lucknow the
sepoys attacked via underground by placing the mine in the ground. It is also
the reflection that the sepoys attacked via underground.
Then another morning, another wild
earthquake out-tore
Clear from our line of defence, ten or
twelve good paces or more
Rifleman, high on the roof, hidden
there from the light of the sun-
One has leapt up on the breach, crying
out: ‘follow me, follow me!’-
Mark him- he falls! Then another, and
him too and down goes he
Had they been bold enough then, who
can tell but the traitors had won.
(Stanza 5 line 1-6)
In another morning there
is an explosive mine that is sprung by the sepoys through placing it in the
ground. This event or the placing of the mine is free from the defense of the
British. In other word, that the British do not know that it will happen a
gain. Simply this attacking is not known by the British. The description above
indicates the running away of the British hastily to save them selves from the
explosive of the mine.
Ever the day with its
traitorous death from the loopholes around,
Ever the night with its
confinlles corpse to be laid in the ground
(Stanza 6 line 7-8)
These lines also reflect
the attacking of the sepoys via underground tunnel that happens in the war. It
ever happens in the whole day there is death that is caused by disloyal people.
The disloyal people here, refers to the sepoys who rebels. It also ever happens
in the whole night, the corpse that would be buried (to be laid in the ground).
From the description above, it can be inferred that there is an action that
make the British people die. The action is the sepoys’ attacking via
underground tunnel, since loopholes can be defined as the way in the
underground. It means that these events happen in the underground.
4.2.3 The Assault of the Sepoys
The sepoys attack the
British by using their guns such cannon ball and musket. They shoot those
cannon ball and musket to the British.
The shooting of those guns is depicted as follow.
Cannon-shot, musket –shot, volley on
volley, and yell upon yell-
Fiercely on all the defences our
myriad enemy fell
What have they done? Where is it? Our
yonder guard the Redan!
Storm at the Water-gate! Storm at the
Bailey-gate! Storm and it run
Surging and swaying all
around us, as ocean on every side
Plunges and heaves at a bank that is
daily devour’d by the tide
(Stanza 3 line 3-8)
The shoot of the cannon
balls and the shoot of the light guns (musket) are discharged by the sepoys.
Volley on volley-the discharge of the cannon balls and musket simultaneously is
in quick succession. This striking is actually the discharge of the sepoys to
attack the British. It is related to the war that actually fire as the result
of arson (http://.en.wikipedia.org).
The fire of the cannon balls and musket is really reflected in this poem that refers
to the war.
The next line of this expression
“myriad enemy”, it indicates that the sepoys who fell the cannon and bullet are
many, it can be concluded that the cannon and the bullet that are fallen are in
the massive number. Actually this line is inversed so that it is little bit
complicated to be understood. To get better understanding of this line, it is
better to change to be “our myriad enemy fell fiercely on all the defenses”. It
indicates that the discharge of the cannon and musket is in the massive number
to all the defense of the British fiercely. The discharge of the sepoys is also
continued in the lines.
The next expression states
that there is English man who asks what sepoys have done and where it happens. There
is another British who answer out yonder (out side). He asks to guard the
Redan, it is implicitly there is an attacking outside. The Redan is actually
the place in Lucknow (Tilak, 1999: 256). The British says to the others that
there is attacking in the Water-gate and Bailey-gate that is caused by the
enemy. From the history, actually the sepoys fell the musket fire into the
compound- Lucknow (as the British compound) (http://.enwikipedia.org).
The sepoys attack the
British compound, they siege it. It is like on every side which plunges and
heaves at the bank that is daily devoured by the tide. It means that the sepoys
do big attacking to the British compound and they siege from every side. The depiction
is same as to the depiction as the real war that the sepoys fell musket fire to
the compound. The sepoys siege the compound from every side and this action was
known as the siege of Lucknow (http://en.wikipedia.org).
The assault of the sepoys
is also reflected in the sixth stanza. These lines indicate that the sepoys
remain their assault or attacks.
Then day and night, day and night,
coming down on the shatter’d wall
Million of musket-bullets and thousand
of cannon- balls
But ever upon topmost roof our banner
of England blew.
(Stanza 6 line 20-22)
This expression, the
assault of the sepoys appears in the last sixth stanza indicates that the
sepoys still remain their attack although the British stroke back the attack to
them. Still they (sepoys) shot their cannon and musket bullet many times to the
wall of the British compound.
4.2.4 The Resistance or
Revenge of the British
After the sepoys attacked
the British that caused the death of the British, the British revenge it,
striking back to the sepoys.
So many thousand that if they be bold
enough, who shall escape?
Killed or be killed, live or die, they
shall know we are soldier and men
Ready! Take aim at their ladder, their
masses are gapp’d with our grape
Backward they reel like the wave, like
the wave flinging forward a gain
Flying and foil’d at the last by the
handful they could not subdue.
And ever topmost roof our banner of
England blew
(Stanza 3 line 10-15)
British stroke back to the
sepoys as their revenge. The sepoys were bold enough to attack the British, the
British considered. The British will show that they are soldiers who have bravery
to strike back to the sepoys. “Killed or be killed, live or die”, it indicates
that the British’s struggle to attack the sepoys. The British will sacrifice
them selves to attack (strike back) to the sepoys. “Who shall escape?” it
suggests who will be the victory in the war. It means that the British really
dare to strike back or attack the sepoys. They really believe that they could
suppress the war.
In conclusion, actually
these lines reflect the spirit of British to revenge as Tilak says that this
poem is actually a poem with the revenge (1999: 253). It means that the sepoys
attacked the British; the British did stroke back to attack the sepoys. And the
striking back of the British is also reflected in the poem.
The descriptions above really
state that the British assault back to the sepoys. The assault of the British
is also compared to the wave as the assault of the sepoys. It means that the
British do assault to the sepoys and the assault of the British is like the
reel of the big wave that will fling a thing that it faces. The wave will
destroy it. It indicates that the striking back of the British is big that the
sepoys can not subdue it. This is such big revenge that can not be cool that
must be expressed outright what they face. It refers that British have big
revenge toward sepoys.
Handful of men as we were, we were
English in heart and in limb
Strong with the strength of race to
command, to obey, to endure
Each of us as if hope for the garrison
hung but on him
Still could we watch at all point? We
were every day fewer and fewer
There was whisper among
us, but only a whisper that past
‘Children and wives-if
the tigers leap into the fold unawares-
Every man die at his
post- and foe may outlive us at last
Better to fall by the
hand that they love, than to fall into theirs
(Stanza 4 line 1-8)
The bravery of the British
men is stated in this poem, “we were English in heart and in limb”- we were
English in heart and in limb and we were brave to strike back. They believe
that they will strong that they are together as a group who will obey to their
commander. “Race of command” can be defined as the togetherness of the racing
contestants who obey the command to start racing. In the racing is clear enough to start
running by obeying the sign of their commander. Because of the togetherness to
obey the commander, it will make them becoming strong. They will fight the
sepoys that they hope they could hang on the sepoys.
The third line of the
fourth stanza, refers to the action happened in the real war that the British
hang the sepoys prisoners as stated in http://en.wikipedia.org
that they could hang and blew the sepoys from cannon. It means that this event
is not clearly depicted in this poem since this event is such the British hope
in this poem.
The fourth line indicates
that although the British do resistance with their big struggle and bravery but
still the number of the British every day is fewer and fewer. It means that the
striking back of the British is not successful.
The whisper of the women
and children that had died becomes the spirit of the British men to revenge
them to the sepoys. If the enemy comes into the fold-the residency in Lucknow
(Tilak, 1999: 256) it will make British die because they (the sepoys) will kill
them. The sepoys can outlive. It means that the British really want to defend
this place. They were better to fight to the sepoys than they fall into theirs
outright.
Riffle man, true is your heart, but be
sure that your hand be as true
Sharp is the fire of assault, better
aimed are your flank fusillades
Twice do we hurl them to earth from
the ladder to which they had clung
Twice from the ditch where they
Shelter we drive them with hand grenades
And ever upon topmost our banner of
England blew
(Stanza 4 line 11-15)
The British strike back
and they could hurl the sepoys and they could ditch the sepoys by using the
hands grenades. It is such kind of British’s attacking to the sepoys.
Boarding
and rafters and doors-an embrasure I make way for gun
Now
double-charge it with grape! It is charged and we fire and they run
(Stanza
5 line 7-8)
The effort of the British
to attack the sepoys is through the embrasure that they made. Embrasure is an
opening made by tools on edges of walls and roof for gun. They make an
embrasure in the boarding (long and narrow wooden boards), rafters (framework
of roof and door) (Tilak, 1999:257). This is such an effort to attack the
sepoys.
Men will forget what we suffer and not
we do. We can fight!
But to be soldier and to be sentinel
all thro’ the night
Bugles
and drum in the darkness and shouting and sounding to arm
Ever
the labor of fifty that had to be done by five
Ever
the marvel among us that one should be left a live
(Stanza
6 line 1-6)
The effort of the British
is also reflected in this line. In the time of the war every one will only
remember what they do, they will forget their suffering. They could fight
bravely. The British soldiers are ready to fight all day long and to be guard
and remain awake all through the night. It is big effort of the British to
strike back and face the battle. In other word, the soldier will be ready every
time to face and guard and they never sleep and rest.
The sound of the bugle and
drum in the night indicates that the British are really spirit and remain awake
all night. It is the effort of the British to revenge and to defense their
compound. The British is fewer and fewer but they fight bravely, a single soldier
fight with the strength of ten soldiers.
4.2.5 The Loyalty of Some Sepoys toward
the British
They are some sepoys who
are still faithful with British when the battle occurred. There are some sepoys
who wanted to guard their officer to safety. The loyalty of the some sepoys is
also reflected in this poem.
Praise
to our Indian brother and let the dark faces have his due!
Thanks
to the kindly dark faces who fought with us, faithful and few
Fought
with the bravest among us, and drove them and smote them and slew
That
ever upon topmost roof our banner kin India Blew
(Stanza
5 line 9-11)
These lines really refers
to the dark faces (sepoys) who want to help the British or still faithful
toward English because they still wants to help them when the battle occurred.
The British really thank toward them. In the real war actually this event
really happens. The sepoys of that regiment had accompanied two ladies with
their children to the safe place (http://en.wikipedia.org).
4.2.6 The Killing of
the British by Sepoys Proved as Big Mistake by the British
The killing of the British
(women and children and other British men) is also reflected in this poem. This
event is reflected as follow.
Heat like the mouth of a
hell, or a deluge of cataract skies
Stench of old offal
decaying, and infinite torment of flies
Thought of the breeze of
may blowing over in English field
Cholera, scurvy, and fever, the wound
that can not be heal’d
Lopping away of the limb by the
pitiful-pitiless knife-
(Stanza 6 line 9-13)
The wound of it is caused
by the sepoys. They killed the British that they could find. It is compared by
the lopping away of the limb of the pitiful-pitiless knife. It cab be inferred
that the killing of the British by the sepoys is done violently. And this
killing is proved as big mistake by the British.
Valour of delicate
women who tended the hospital bed
Horror of women in
travail among the dying and the dead
Grief for our perishing
children and never a moment and grief
Toil and ineffable
weariness, faltering hope of relief,
Havelock baffled, or
eaten, or butcher’d for all that we knew-
(Stanza 6 line 15-17)
The women, who are considered
frail and weak, serve as nurses and thus show their courage. The horror of
women among the dying and the dead of the British men, women and children are in
the hospital. They are really sad because of the death of the children that are
killed by the sepoys, because they do not have time to grief for their
children. From this, it can be concluded that the poet inserts the killing of
the British although he does not depict clearly. He only depicts that event
implicitly.
In addition, actually the
British considered that the killing of the women and children by the sepoys was
proved as big mistake by the British. When the British retook Cownpore later
the soldier took their sepoys prisoners to Bibi Gharh and force them to lick
(suck in ) the bloodstain from the walls and the floor. Then they hang of blew
from the cannon the sepoys (http://.en.wikipedia.org).
The killing of the women and children by the sepoys is proved as big mistake
that can not be forgiven. It is stated implicitly from the clause “the wound
that can not be heal’d”. ‘That can not be hail’d’ can be interpreted as the
mistake that can not be forgiven. This is such the revenge of the British to
the sepoys. And it also reflected in it is poem.
Torture and trouble in vain, for it
never could save us a life
(Stanza 6 line 14)
From this line, the
torture by the British toward the sepoy is considered vain since the British
can only torture the sepoys Prisoners to lick the blood stain then they blew
them from the cannon (http://en.wikipedia.org).
4.2.7 The Suppression of the Battle by
the British
Finally the British could
suppress the sepoy rebellion. The suppression of the British that gives them
the victory is also reflected in this poem.
Hark
cannonade, fusillade! It is true what was told by the scout.
Outram
and Havelock breaking their way through the fell mutineers?
(Stanza
7 line 1-2)
The suppression of the war
was done by the British Army Outram and Havelock by breaking their way attacking
through the fell mutineers. It seems that they use the fell mutineers as a
means to suppress the battle. ”told by the scout” can be interpreted as the
information that is given by the soldier; spies. Because the British could get
the information how to suppress the war through the use of the fell mutineers
as the means to suppress it, so they could suppress it. They got the way how to
suppress was from their spies.
4.3 Ending
Finally the British won
the war after they could suppress it. And the British acclaim the war very
jubilant. The jubilance of the British in acclaiming their victory is reflected
as follow,
Surely the pibroch of
Europe is ringing again in our ears!
All on a sudden the
garrison utter a jubilant shout,
Havelock’s glorious
Highlander answer with conquering cheers
Sick from the hospital echo them,
women and children come out,
Blessing the wholesome white faces of
Havelock’s good fusiliers,
Kissing the war harden’d hand of the
Highlander wet with their tears!
Dance
to the pibroch!-saved! We are saved! –is it you? Is you?
Saved
by the valour of Havelock, saved by the blessing of heaven.
‘Hold
it for fifteen days!’ we have held it for eighty seven!
And
ever aloft on the palace roof of the old banner of England blew
(Stanza
7 line 3-12)
“Surely
the pibroch” can be interpreted as the kind of music that is the Europe’s music
(Tilak, 1999: 252). When this music is ringing, it indicates the winning of the
British. It is also supported by “All on sudden the garrison utters a jubilant
shout”. This line really indicates that they shout jubilantly that indicates
the winning of the war. Jubilant can be interpreted as joyful or victorious or
happy. They are very happy, their happiness is because they could suppress or
even win the war.
The fifth line of the last
stanza really indicates that the British could win the war. Havelock, General
of British Army (Tilak, 1999: 258) could suppress the war. “Conquering cheer”
could be interpreted as their cheer because they could conquer the war.
The sick people from the
hospital and also women and children come out to acclaim their winning. They
want to acclaim it by coming out from hospital to acclaim to wholesome white
faces of Havelock’s good fusileers. This description is the expression of
British people because they could win the war. The women and children kiss the
war hardened hand of Highlander, they fall their tears to those hand. It also
indicates that they are very happy and thank to the Highlander because they
could win the war.
The last stanza of this
poem is stated clearly that the British won the war. They are very jubilant
because they could suppress it. In other word they could conquer the war;
because of it they were very happy or cheer. In this expression the British
could suppress the war by their power specifically by the General Army-Havelock
Army. They want to suppress it in fifteen days but they could suppress it in
eighty seven days. And it is also stated in Tilak (1999: 254) that the
Englishmen could suppress the mutineers by their power. The ringing of the
piproch and dance to the piproch indicate the victory and they acclaim it.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
According to the analysis
that I have elaborated in the chapter four, finally I take a conclusion in this
chapter. From the analysis of the battle of the British versus sepoy in the
poem The Defence of Lucknow by Alfred Tennyson, I can derive a
conclusion that in the poem there are some descriptions of events in the battle
that happened in 1857 as described by Alfred Tennyson.
In the beginning of the
poem the poet leads his reader to the topic (war) that he wants to convey to
his readers and he continues to leads the readers to the specific war that is
the war of British versus sepoys. In other word, the description of the beginning
of the poem is in the first stanza as the beginning of the plot.
Then he begins to describe
the events that happened in the battle in the second stanza as the middle of
the plot in this poem. Those events are the massacre by the sepoys toward the
British, the attacking of the sepoys via underground tunnel, the assault of the
sepoys, the revenge of the British, the loyalty of the sepoys toward the
British, and the killing of the British by sepoys proved as big mistake by the
British and also the suppression of the battle. Those events described by
Alfred Tennyson.
In ending, he also inserts
that the British could win the war. The winning of the British is described by
the jubilance of British people. It can be said the ending of the poem is the
jubilance of the British because they could suppress the battle.
 ABSTRACT
The Battle of British versus Sepoys as
Portrayed in Alfred Tennyson’s The Defence of Lucknow
By
Sarji
0411121
This thesis mainly focuses on
discussing about the battle of British versus Sepoys which happened in India in
1857 in which this battle had diverse causes- economy, religion, culture, and
military. Through this thesis I attempt to figure out the relation between
literature and history in which I use historical approach to analyze the poem The
Defence of Lucknow. This poem is written by Alfred Tennyson, the great poet
in Victorian Age.
In making the poem Tennyson was
inspired by that event.
To do the research I put the history
of British expansion to India, the battle of British versus sepoys, sepoys, and
historical approach. Since my analysis only focuses on the plot of narrative
poem, the theory of plot in the narrative poem is employed. I got and collect
the primary data from the poem The Defence of Lucknow by Alfred Tennyson
in the form of lines of the poem. While secondary data are article about the
battle of British versus sepoys that I take from internet and essay about the
poem that I take from the book related to this research.
By doing this research I could find
the description of the battle of British versus sepoys in which it is described
by exploring the events of the battle. Those events are the massacre, the
attacking of the sepoys via underground tunnel, the assault of the sepoys, the
resistance or revenge of the British, and the suppresssion of the battle. Those
events are explored in the middle of the plot. Meanwhile in the beginning
Tennyson leads his reader to what actually he wants to convey and in the end he
gives them the winning of the British because they could suppress the war. It
means that he concerns to the events in the battle that are brought in The
Defence of Lucknow.
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THE BATTLE OF BRITISH VERSUS SEPOY IN 1857
AS
PORTRAYED IN ALFRED TENNYSON’S
THE
DEFENCE OF LUCKNOW
(Thesis)
By
Sarji
04111121
SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE SARJANA DEGREE AT THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
OF SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEKNOKRAT
BANDAR LAMPUNG
2007
|
21.30
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